佛教在二十一世纪的社会功能及其修行观念

──第四届中华国际佛学会议开幕典礼主题演说

释圣严
中华佛学研究所创办人

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一、前言

自从1990年元月12～15日，我们中华佛学研究所假台北国家图书馆，举办了第一届中华国际佛学会议以来，已历十二个年头，当时拟定的永久主题是「佛教传统与现代社会」。在此原则下，以前三届也各选定了一个主题，分别是：「佛教伦理与现代社会」、「传统戒律与现代世界」、「人间净土与现代社会」，每一届都有很多杰出的学者们，发表了高水准的论文。这回是第四届，我们依旧要沿着永久主题的原则，来讨论「佛教与二十一世纪」。我们邀请到了来自中华民国、中国大陆、泰国、英国、美国、印度、加拿大、日本、俄国、德国、南韩等十一个国家地区，当今世界的优秀佛教学者共四十多人，发表三十多篇相关的精彩论文。我首先要在这里向诸位学者们致敬和致谢，因为你们诸位，将为二十一世纪全人类的福祉，提供卓越的研究成果及高明的建言。

这回的大会，有三个子题，分成三个领域，那就是：一、佛教与修行，二、佛教与社会，三、佛教与资讯。每一个领域都将有好多篇专业的论文发表。我的这篇主题演说，仅就佛教与修行、佛教与社会的二个项目，依据《阿含经》的观点，作回顾与前瞻的探讨，用来向诸位善知识请教。至於第三个项目，则由路易士?蓝卡斯特博士来给我们作另外一篇主题演说。

二、佛教本来就重视社会关怀

宗教是社会现象的一环，佛教也不例外，虽在佛灭後已经过二千五百多年，佛教依旧在人类社会中，担负着极其重要的任务。甚至可说，现代乃至未来的世界，愈来愈需要佛教的智慧和方法，来解决人类的社会问题。接下来，我将试举五项社会议题，从《阿含经》的观点，说明佛教的立场及其可能提供的解决方法。

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(一)人权平等

现代的社会必须建立在人权平等的基本要求上。此在古印度称为 「四种姓」的四大阶级社会中，是不被承认的，但於佛说的《阿含经》中，早已主张四姓平等，例如《中阿含经》卷39〈梵志品〉，佛与梵志论说四姓平等；[1]《中阿含经》卷59〈例品〉的〈一切智经〉，佛与波斯匿王论说四姓问题，由王说出四姓应平等的结论；[2]《杂阿含经》卷44有偈云： 这是说下贱的阶级中，也有圣人出生。《增一阿含经》卷37有云： 《长阿含经》卷6〈小缘经〉记述佛云： 意思是说，种族阶级的信仰，是不合理的，应该以素行的道德和智慧的高低深浅，论其成就，不当以出生的家族或种族的背景，论其贵贱。所以凡在佛陀的团体中出了家的，便可舍却原有的种族阶级，一律称为「沙门释子」；纵然依旧在家学佛，也不以出身的种族阶级，论其高下，而一律皆以所行的善法程度，来作衡量。这就是打破不平等的阶级制度，将各种族群的人，都置於同等的社会地位了。此在当时的印度社会，应算是一种革命性的人权运动。

汝莫问所生，但当问所行。刻木为钻燧，亦能生於火。下贱种姓中，生坚固牟尼。[3]

我法中有四种姓，於我法中作沙门，不录前名，更作余字，犹如彼四大江河，皆投於海而同一味，更无余名。[4]

若有人问汝谁种姓？当答彼言，我是沙门释种子也。[5]

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(二)政教分离

政治与宗教分离是新时代的必然趋势。否则的话，由於政治体制与宗教结构的挂钩，会为政治人物带来操纵宗教群众的弊端，也会为宗教团体带来腐败及俗化的危机。往往会因了政治人物的私利而驱使宗教的群众，发动宗教战争。正统的佛教徒，是不会被卷入政治漩涡的。

例如《增一阿含经》卷42〈结禁品〉中，规定比丘不得亲近国王，否则可能会有十种负面的问题发生，对比丘不利，也於佛教的团体有害。[6]《中阿含经》卷49〈大空经〉中，规定沙门不应 「论王、论贼、论斗诤」等。[7]《增一阿含经》卷43〈善恶品〉中，佛对比丘们说： 「汝等莫称讥王治国界，亦莫论王有胜劣。」[8]因为佛教是无国界的，不得党同伐异的、不得参与政治斗诤的。

不过，佛教徒也不是不关心政治的良窳治乱，若遇贤王良相，亦当适时给予建言，例如《中阿含经》卷35的〈雨势经〉、[9]《长阿含经》卷2的〈游行经〉、[10]《增一阿含经》卷34的〈七日品〉，[11] 均举出治国的七法。大致是主张王臣勤政爱民、以和合心议国事、人民彼此团结、上下和顺、尊重耆宿意见、不违礼度、法律清明、崇信宗教、恭奉供养。以宗教来福国佑民，安定社会人心，由政治来治国保民，护持宗教。出家的佛教徒在任何国家，都是爱国的，关心政治的，但不左右政治；至於在家佛教徒，不仅关心政治，也应参与政治，唯不可利用教团的群众，作为政治的工具。

(三)宗教宽容

文化多元与宗教的包容，已是新文明的必然趋势。今日美国的强大，起源於英国清教徒不容於保守的英国，而移民到了美洲新大陆，美国立国精神之一便是人民有宗教信仰的自由，保障了宗教的包容性与多样性。事实上，此在佛陀时代，就已处处告诫弟子们，应当平等恭敬供养一切宗教的沙门婆罗门，例如《长阿含经》卷2的〈游行经〉，建议国王治国，当恭於宗庙、致敬鬼神，而与孝事父母敬顺师长并列。[12] 在《增一阿含经》

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卷34的〈七日品〉中，鼓励 拔只国人，供养沙门、婆罗门、承事礼敬梵行人。[13] 也就是说，人人均应有宗教信仰和所供养承事的宗教师及修行者，但不一定非得信仰佛教不可。

另於《中阿含经》卷32的〈优婆离经〉中，特别叙述一则动人的故事，[14] 说有一位原本供奉尼犍外道的居士，接受了佛陀的教化之後，准备不再让尼犍外道师进他家门，也不打算供养原先的外道师了。佛陀知道了，却勉励他，仍应如往常一样地供养，并且开示说：

佛教主张，只要是不违背人天善法的一切宗教，均应受到保护及尊重，只是一定要告诉大家，佛教虽也是以人天善法为基础，却不以人天善法为究竟，在这之上，尚有出离生死的解脱道、自觉觉他的菩萨道、成等正觉的无上菩提。

佛教是「求同存异」的宗教，所以能够包容异文化甚至运用异文化的优点来帮助佛法的推广，不像是若干一元论二分法的宗教，把异民族异文化的其他教派，一律视为魔鬼，而认为必须予以歼灭，因此造成宗教与种族的世仇大敌，怨怨相报，杀伐不已！新世纪的地球村中，类似从1996年起，统治阿富汗的神学士政权，像那样极端的回教一元论者，势必会被时代潮流孤立而失去生存的空间，否则，人类社会的命运，就要非常的悲惨了。

(四)社会福利

入世济世的菩萨精神，已是时代宗教的必走之路。事实上，自从佛陀成道之後，除了每年三个月的雨季，是安居不外出之外，几乎每天都会率领弟子们，到人间游化说法，关怀人间大众的疾苦，宣说脱苦之道，劝勉人间大众都应发心利益众生。除了在《增一阿含经》卷11中，有定光佛说了 「菩萨所行法」，[16] 同经卷19中，有弥勒菩萨请示六波罗蜜法；[17]　《杂阿含经》卷26的667经及669经，明载有四摄法。

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[18]六度与四摄，一向被认为是大乘的菩萨法门，却在《阿含经》中已见到了。六度中的布施行是利他门，持戒行看似自利门，可是五戒被称为五大施，持戒行也含摄了菩萨的三聚净戒，那便也是利他门了。四摄法的布施、爱语、利行、同事，则全属於利他行的方便法。

在《阿含经》中处处鼓励佛弟子们当行布施，这是佛教的社会福祉观，因为人类的知能和福报，是不会相等的；生产的能力和经营的能力，是不会相同的，尤其是各人的机遇，也不会一样。自然而然地就会形成贫富的差距。若用什麽制度来将财物平均分配，那是不公平的，也是不理智的，如果硬性规定下去，可能不是平均的富有，而是平均的贫穷了！解决贫富悬殊的社会现象，除了合理的经济制度，其最好的办法，便是鼓励人人都乐意布施。

布施那些项目呢？《增一阿含经》卷27的〈邪聚品〉有云： 这五个项目，都是社会大众的公共设施，包括了造作公园及其建筑物、森林、桥梁、大船、旅舍。这些在现代社会中，多半已由政府负责建造了，但是尚有政府做不到的公益福利，均可比照着由民间大众布施，例如对流离失所的灾民、难民，贫病交迫、饥寒相煎的穷人、病患，均应伸出援手，施衣食、给医药。教他们谋生的方法和技巧，乃至例如於《中阿含经》卷47的〈瞿昙弥经〉[20]、《杂阿含经》卷48的1284经[21]所见，也教奴婢及贫穷的人们，发起布施的欢喜心，解除了心灵的贫穷，就能面对物质的贫穷而不以为苦。

复有五施，令得大福，云何为五？一者造作园观，二者造作林树，三者造作桥梁，四者造作大船，五者与当来、过去（的人）造作房舍住处。[19]

布施又名造福业，《增一阿含经》卷12的〈三宝品〉，说有三种福业：[22]第一种布施福业，便是对沙门、婆罗门、极贫穷者、病瘦者、孤独无所依靠者，应施与衣被、床具、饮食、医药、止宿处等。在大乘经中，又称布施为种福田，例如《优婆塞戒经》所说，以供养三宝为敬田，以孝养父母为恩田，以布施贫苦为悲田。[23]

不过，布施的项目，可分三等：那就是，一、一般人只能以财物和劳力布施，

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二、知解佛法的人可用离苦得乐的观念和方法布施，三、菩萨则能以大无畏的精神布施。财物和劳力的布施，可救一时的急难困苦；离苦得乐的观念及方法，乃是一劳永逸、而标本兼治的教育和训练。因此，《增一阿含经》卷7的〈有无品〉要说： 此即是说，诸布施中，法布施最上；诸供养中，法供养最好；一切恩惠中，法的恩惠最可贵。若以通俗的说法，即是布施物力资源和人力资源，当然很好，若能以教育来训练大众，能使大众获得自力谋生的观念和技巧，那就更好了。

施中之上者，不过法施。

业中之上者，不过法业。

恩中之上者，所谓不过法恩也。[24]

(五)临终关怀

对於病患的看护以及临终的关怀，已是现代宗教重要的服务项目。现代人病重时，便可能住进医院的病房，接受专业的医护照料，但在病危弥留之际，病患者本人以及病患者的亲属，都会陷入恐慌、焦急、悲苦、无奈的情景中。此时极需要给予宗教信仰和宗教精神的照顾，所以从二十世纪末期即於西方社会中，有人设置安宁病房，以照顾临终的病患。我们台湾佛教界也普遍地推出了临终助念的风气，直到目前为止，法鼓山推广的临终关怀及佛化奠祭，已经是很受社会大众欢迎的了。

其实，此在释迦世尊时代，就已实施了的，例如《增一阿含经》卷5〈入道品〉之四，佛告诸比丘： 这是说，比丘们当为病比丘作看护，就等於为佛陀作看护；照顾了病人，就如同照顾了佛陀，而佛陀自己也要亲身看顾病人。故在《僧只律》卷28中，就有佛陀亲自替病比丘洗衣的记载。[26]在《杂阿含经》卷37的1025经记载，有一位客来比丘，在客僧房中病得很重，无人照顾，佛陀便去探看他。病比丘见佛陀来探视，便扶床欲起，

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佛陀说： 「息卧勿起。」并问他： 「苦患宁可忍否？」病比丘回说： 「我年幼稚，出家未久，於过人法胜妙知见，未有所得，我作是念：命终之时，知生何处？故生变悔。」接着佛陀为他说六根、六尘、六识的缘生之理。佛陀走开之後，病比丘便死了。弟子问佛： 「如是比丘当生何处？」佛答：「闻我说法，分明解了，於法无畏得涅盘。」一个出家未久的年轻比丘，本来还在担心他尚未得到解脱道的胜妙法，不知死後将生何处而生起不安之心，由於佛陀为他临终说法，他便得涅盘证圣果了。[27]以此可知，为临终者说法，以及欲临终者应当闻法的重要性了。

其有瞻视病者，则为瞻视我已；有看病者，则为看我已；所以然者，我今躬欲看视疾病。[25]

也有病重比丘，由於佛陀的探视，闻佛说法而病好了的，例如《杂阿含经》卷37的1024经，佛为病重的阿湿波誓（Assaji）尊者说五蕴非我，便使他心得解脱，欢喜踊悦，身病立除。[28] 在《杂阿含经》卷37中，尚有不少佛及圣弟子们探病说法的例子。[29]

在《增一阿含经》卷49的〈非常品〉中，有一则舍利弗与阿难共去探视邠祁长者病的记载，向此长者劝修念佛、念法、念比丘僧，说色、声、香、味、触，离於识，说五蕴炽盛苦，说十二因缘法。长者闻法，感动悲泣，命终之後，即生於三十三天。[30]

依据《杂阿含经》卷47的1244经记载，佛说若有男子女人，临寿终时，身遭苦患，众苦触身，只要心中忆念，先前所修的善法功德，即於此时攀缘善法，则当生於善趣，不堕恶趣。[31]但亦最好能有善知识从旁劝勉提醒，使得临命终人，保持正念。

由上所举经证可知，佛教非常重视探看病人，尤其对於病重病危的病人，应该为他说法。或可由於闻法心开而病就好了，或可由於闻法解了而命终解脱，至少也可由於闻法往生善趣不堕恶趣。

中国的净土念佛法门，确实是好，不仅能够做临终时的助念关怀，也能够做死亡後的诵念超度，较之於《阿含经》的临终关怀，更多一项方便。诵经说法与念佛说法，是异曲同工的。

三、二十一世纪修行观念

佛教的修行观，主要是以解脱道为着眼的，也就是从认知四圣谛的苦、苦集、苦灭、

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而修灭苦之道，这是佛法的根本思想和基本功能。修灭苦之道，便是解脱道，若以修行解脱道而为自己完成灭苦的目的，称为自利行，若以解脱道协助他人也都完成灭苦的目的，称为利他行。近代的日本学者宇井伯寿博士的《佛教泛论》，也基於这个观点，以小乘诸派为自利教，大乘诸宗为利他教。

我一向以为：关怀人间的种种社会问题，是属於人天善法；自求出离的四谛法门，称为解脱道；以六度及四摄等法门，来利人利己的，称为菩萨道。如果不以解脱道为终极目标，仅修人天善法，从事社会关怀，便成随顺世俗的福利事业，不合佛法救世的宗旨；如果只顾修行四圣谛法而自求解脱，便成缺少慈悲心的自了汉，不合佛陀说法化世的本怀。必须将出离生死之苦、证得涅盘之乐的解脱法门，结合了人天善法的社会关怀，落实於人间，分享给大众，才是正确的修行观念。

大乘佛教，贬斥小乘，正因为小乘偏於自求解脱，不合佛陀的本怀，如果佛陀也偏於自求解脱，世间就不会有佛教，我们也不会听闻到佛法了。小乘人仅注意到，佛陀所说的四圣谛、十二因缘、八正道品、三十七道品等修持解脱道的道品次第及其果位次第，却忽略了佛陀是为关怀人间大众的种种苦难、疏解人间大众的种种苦难，而修道、成道、弘道的。此由佛陀的一生事蹟可以看出，佛陀本人，便是最具体的大乘精神的亲身示范者。所以在《阿含经》中，就处处呈现了人间性的大乘佛法。何况，大乘佛法的六度及四摄，早在《增一阿含经》及《杂阿含经》中，就已见到了。

大乘菩萨的利他行，不论六度或四摄，皆以布施为首要，解脱道的道品次第，虽是以戒定慧的三无漏学为纲要，但是佛陀随时随处，鼓励财布施及法布施，在家居士通常以财物布施，出家沙门即以自己所学所修的佛法布施，这就是将人天善法的社会关怀，提昇到与解脱道结合的菩萨道的层次了。这也正是《增一阿含经》之所以要强调，法施与财施的两种布施，「施中之上者，不过法施」了。

布施而有亲疏厚薄、或有目标企图者，称为有相布施，仍属於人天善法；布施而无亲疏厚薄、亦无目标企图者，称为无相布施，便是与解脱道相应的菩萨行了。故在《增一阿含经》卷4〈护心品〉第5经的记载，有一位阿那邠持长者，常作平等布施，不检对象，佛陀便称赞他说： 「善哉！善哉！长者！汝乃以菩萨心，专精一意而广惠施。」又说： 「菩萨之（学）处，恒以平等心而以惠施。」[32]《增一阿含经》卷45中，亦有佛陀赞叹师子长者是 「菩萨所施，心恒平等」的记载。[33]於此可知，菩萨行的布施与人天善行的布施，看来相似，其实全异。一般的慈善救济，仍为世俗法，若有解脱道的无相或平等心为导向的慈悲救苦，便是菩萨行了。

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因此，新世纪的修行观，Å须回归到佛陀的本怀，那就是契合社会大众的需求，提昇布施的精神层次，落实於解脱道及菩萨道的普遍推广。如果是没有解脱道的菩萨行，其实只是世俗化的人天善法；如果脱离了人天善法而光修解脱之道，那就背离了佛陀应化人间的宗旨。

至於什麽才是菩萨道的修行法门？在《杂阿含经》卷20第550经，记载有摩诃迦旃延尊者，向诸比丘所说的五句话： 这虽出於一向被认为是小乘经典的《杂阿含经》，确实就是大乘菩萨道的根本。此处的一乘道，可以说即是《法华经》的「唯一佛乘」，[35]　 是和《增一阿含经》卷24等处所见的「三乘之道」相对而说的。[36]一乘道是助一切众生，脱离一切的恼、苦、忧、悲，并且实证真如的如实法性，也就是用一乘的佛法，济度一切众生，净化心地，实证真如。三乘之道，是指声闻、缘觉、佛的圣道次第。

（如来）说一乘道，净诸众生，离诸恼苦，忧悲悉灭，得真如法。[34]

至於如何修证？必须如法修行四圣谛、十二因缘、三十七道品。四圣谛的道圣谛，即是八正道，它的基本内容是正见、正行、正定、正智慧，也就是以佛陀本怀的正知见，作为实践戒、定、慧三无漏学的指导方针，来清净身、语、意的三业行为；持戒安身、修定摄心、依空慧而得解脱。

《阿含经》中的解脱，有两种人，一者定慧俱解脱，二则慧解脱。中国禅宗第六祖慧能大师的《坛经》之中，则主张 「定慧一体，不是二，定是慧体，慧是定用。」[37] 又说： 「外离相为禅，内不乱为定。」[38]　若能於日常生活中，但得心不染着、不起恼乱者，便是自在解脱之人。如何能够做到？一般人还是得从布施、持戒、习定方面多下功夫，方能Ã开业消，而证真如法性。

四、我们正在朝向新世纪的佛教努力

二十一世纪的佛教，必须落实於社会问题的关怀，如果光是藏身於自我封闭的修道生活，佛教将会遭受被时代社会淘汰而招致灭亡的命运。但是，关怀社会，是为社会大众减轻痛苦、增加幸福、提昇品质，而不是随波逐流、被世俗同化。

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我们法鼓山，是在救人首要安心的原则下，依据《维摩经》所说「随其心净则国土净」[39]的教示，提倡心灵环保，用禅修的观念和方法来提昇人的品质，以期普遍推广而来完成建设人间净土的理念，我们以教育工作来完成关怀的任务，又以关怀工作达成教育的目的。

我们法鼓山正在做的、将要做的，就是为了回归佛陀的本怀。我们自从中华佛学研究所召开的第一届国际佛学会议以来，已经集思广益，得到了许多学者们提供的伟论高见，对法鼓山有用，对全球的佛教有用，对全人类的离苦得乐有用。

不过，法鼓山的团体很小，力量有限，想做的很多，有能力做到、做好的不多，可是，我们应该有信心，二十一世纪的佛教徒们，都会共同响应、共同努力的。

为大会的成功祝福！

为佛教对人间社会的关怀祝福！

为一切众生能因佛法的救济而离苦得乐祝福！

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　（2002年1月18日讲於中央研究院学术活动中心）

Buddhism in the 21st Century: Its Social Function and View of Practice　-- Keynote Address for the Opening Ceremony of the Fourth Chung-Hwa International Conference on Buddhism

Ven. Sheng-yen
Founder, Chung-Hwa institute of Buddhist Studies

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I. Introduction

　It had already been twelve years since the Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies held its first international conference on Buddhism at the National Central Library in Taipei from January 12 to 15, 1990. At that time we determined a permanent theme: "The Buddhist Tradition and Modern Society." Accordingly, the topics chosen for discussion at the first three conferences were "Buddhist Ethics and Modern Society," "Traditional Buddhist Precepts and the Modern World," and "The Earthly Pure Land and Contemporary Society." At each, many outstanding scholars presented papers of high quality. Now at this fourth conference, we will keep to our permanent theme and discuss "The Role of Buddhism in the 21st Century." We have invited more than forty outstanding contemporary scholars of Buddhism from eleven countries and regions including the Republic of China, Mainland China, Thailand, the United Kingdom, the United States, India, Canada, Japan, Russia, Germany and South Korea to present more than thirty splendid papers. I would like to express my respect and gratitude first to all the scholars gathered here for the fruits of research and wise counsel you are going to present for the well-being of humanity in the 21st century.

　This conference will have three subtopics comprising three spheres. These are: "Buddhism in Daily Life," "Buddhism in Society," and "Buddhism in the Information Age." In each sphere, many specialized papers will be presented. This keynote address of mine will engage in a retrospective and prospective discussion based on the āgamas (A-han

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jing) from only two approaches -- Buddhism in Daily Life and Buddhism in Society. I offer this in the hope of stimulating instructive comments from all of you here today. As for the third subtopic, Professor Lewis Lancaster will deliver a separate keynote address for us.

II. Buddhism is Fundamentally a Religion that Emphasizes Social Concern

　Religion is a social phenomenon and Buddhism is no exception. Although it has been over two thousand five hundred years since the passing away of the Buddha, as of old Buddhism still has an extremely important mission in human society. One may even say that the world today and in the future will need the wisdom and methods of Buddhism more and more to solve the social problems of humanity. In the following, I will discuss five social issues from the perspective of the āgamas, explaining the Buddhist stance and the solutions Buddhism may offer:

1. Equal human rights

　Modern society must be established on the foundation of equal human rights. In ancient Indian society, which was comprised of four varna or castes, this idea was not accepted. However, in the āgamas preached by the Buddha, he was already advocating the equality of the castes. For instance, in the Zhong-ahan jing (Madhyamāgama), fascicle 39, Fanzhi chapter, the Buddha discourses to a brahmin on the equality of the four castes.[1] And the Yiqie zhi jing of the Zhong ahan jing, fascicle 59, Li chapter, in which the Buddha discourses to King Prasenajit on the problem of caste, also ends with the King concluding that the castes should be equal. [2] In the Za ahan jing (Sa?yuktāgama), fascicle 44, there is a verse that says:

This is to say that a sage may be born in the low castes. In the Zengyi ahan jing (Ekottarikāgama), fascicle 37, it says:

The Xiao yuan jing of the Chang ahan jing (Dīrghāgama), fascicle 6, records that the Buddha said:

　This means that the belief in a class or caste system is not reasonable. To appraise a person's accomplishment and nobility, one should examine the morality in the person's conduct and the level of the person's wisdom rather than examining his or her family or caste background. So all those renunciants in the Buddha's community could give up their original caste status and be known together as "cramana, sons of ?ākya." Even householders who follow the Buddha's path were no longer judged higher or lower based on their caste status, but were all measured by the virtuous deeds they had done. This plainly broke with the unequal class system and placed people of every caste and ethnic group on equal social footing. For Indian society of the time, this was nothing less than a revolutionary human rights movement.

2. Church-state separation

　The separation of church and state is an inevitable trend of the new

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era. If not, the linkage between the political system and religious organizations may lead political figures to manipulate the believing masses and give rise to a crisis of corruption and secularization for religious communities. Moreover, politicians will often incite the religious masses to launch a religious war for their own personal interests. So orthodox Buddhists will never be drawn into the whirlpool of politics.

　For instance, in the Zengyi ahan jing, fascicle 42, Jie jin chapter, there is a rule that bhiksus may not become close to kings lest there occur ten problems, disadvantageous to the bhiksu and harmful to the Buddhist community. [6] The Da kong jing of the Zhong ahan jing, fascicle 49, says that cramanas should not "discuss kings, rebels, strife," and so on. [7] In the Zengyi ahan jing, fascicle 43, Shan e chapter, the Buddha says to the bhiksus, "do not praise or disparage a king's governance of his realm, and do not discuss which king is superior or inferior". [8] This is because Buddhism is borderless, nonpartisan, and disapproves of involvement in political conflict.

　However, it is not that Buddhism does not care whether the country is governed well or poorly. If one meets a virtuous king or prime minister, one should give him timely advice. For instance, three separate sutras -- the Yushi jing of the Zhong ahan jing, fascicle 35; [9] the Youxing jing of the Chang ahan jing, fascicle 2; [10] and the Qi ri chapter of the Zengyi ahan jing, fascicle 34 [11] -- all lay forth the seven teachings for governing a nation. Basically, these teachings exhort diligent governance and love of the people and discussion of national affairs with a mind of harmony by kings and ministers. Further, they exhort solidarity of the people, peaceful interaction between those of

p. 15

high and low status, respect for the opinions of the elderly, observance of etiquette or established customs, upright implementation of the law, reverence for religion, and respectful making of offerings. So we should employ religion to bless the nation and people and to settle people's minds, and employ politics to govern the country, to protect the people, and to uphold religion. Buddhist monastics in any nation are patriotic; they care about politics, but do not seek to manipulate it. As to lay Buddhists, they not only care about politics but should also participate. They must not, however, use the religious community as a political tool.

3. Religious tolerance

　Cultural diversity and religious tolerance are already an inevitable trend of the new civilization. America's contemporary might originates in the emigration to the New World of the Puritans, whom the conservative 17th-century England could not tolerate. Hence, part of the founding spirit of America is the people's freedom of religion, which guarantees religious tolerance and diversity. Actually, the Buddha, in his time, already frequently admonished his disciples to respectfully make offerings equally to cramanas and brahmins of all religions. For example, in the Chang ahan jing, fascicle 2, Youxing jing, he suggests that a king, in ruling his country, should pay homage to temples and give respect to the spirits and deities just as he would filially serve his parents and respectfully obey his teachers and elders. [12] In the Zengyi ahan jing, fascicle 34, Qi ri chapter, he encourages the people of Vrji to make offerings to cramanas and brahmins and to politely serve and pay respect to all brahma-carins. [13] That is to say that everyone should have religious faith and serve and make offerings to religious teachers and practitioners, but needn't necessarily believe in Buddhism.

　Also in the Zhong ahan jing, fascicle 32, Youpoli jing, a moving story

p. 16

is told. [14] A lay person who had originally followed the outer path of Nirgrantha-jñātaputra (P. Niga??ha-putta) accepted the Buddha's teaching.　Afterwards he intended to stop allowing the teachers of this outer path into his home and to stop making offerings to them. The Buddha found out, and yet he encouraged the lay person to continue making offerings as before, saying:

　Buddhism holds that every religion should receive protection and respect as long as they do not contradict the virtuous teachings of the human and heavenly vehicles. But I must tell you, although Buddhism holds the virtuous teachings of the human and heavenly vehicles to be fundamental, it does not hold them to be ultimate. Above them, there is still the path of liberation from birth and death, the bodhisattva path of awakening oneself and others, and the unexcelled enlightenment of anuttara-samyak-sambodhi.

　Buddhism is a religion that supports "seeking common ground while preserving differences," so it is able to accept other cultures and even use their good points to spread Buddhism. It is not like exclusivist, dichotomous religions that view the religions of other peoples and cultures as demonic faiths that must be destroyed. This view has created great religious and racial feuds and enmity, cycles of revenge, and endless mutual slaughter! In the global village of the new century, groups like the Taliban, the radical Islamic exclusivists who ruled Afghanistan since 1996 until recently, will inevitably be isolated

p. 17

by the tide of history and lose their space for survival. If not, the fate of human society will be a great tragedy.

4. Social welfare

　The bodhisattva spirit of entering the world to save it has become the inevitable road that contemporary religions must take. Actually, after the Buddha attained enlightenment, with the exception of the three months of the yearly rainy season retreat, the Buddha led his disciples out almost every day to travel amongst the people preaching the Dharma, caring for their sufferings, spreading the word of the path to liberation from suffering, and encouraging them to resolve to work for the benefit of sentient beings. In the Zengyi ahan jing, fascicle 11, Dīpa?kara Buddha speaks on "the practices of a bodhisattva", [16] and in the nineteenth fascicle of the same sutra Maitreya Bodhisattva requests a teaching on the six pāramitās. [17] Moreover, sutras 667 and 669 of the Za ahan jing, fascicle 26, clearly mention the four methods of inducement. [18] The six perfections and four methods of inducement are usually thought of as belonging to the Mahāyāna Dharma-gate of the bodhisattva, yet they can already be seen in the āgamas. Among the six perfections, giving benefits others and keeping precepts seems to benefit only oneself. Yet the five precepts are also called the five great acts of giving, and the precepts to keep include the bodhisattva's three sets of pure precepts, so keeping precepts also benefits others. The four inducements are giving, speaking lovingly, acting beneficially, and intermingling, which are all expedient means for benefiting others.

　Throughout the āgamas, the Buddha's disciples are encouraged to practice giving. This is the Buddhist view of social welfare. Because people's intelligence and karmic blessings are not the same, their productive and management abilities are not the same, and especially

p. 18

their opportunities are not the same. Thus a gap between rich and poor opens naturally. If we resort to some institutional means to evenly distribute property, that would be unfair and irrational. If we lay down hard rules, perhaps everyone will be equally poor rather than equally rich. Besides a rational economic system, the best method of solving the social problem of large economic disparity is to encourage people to give willingly and readily.

　And what shall one give? The Zengyi ahan jing, fascicle 27, Xie ju chapter, says:

These five -- parks, forests, bridges, ships, and hostels -- are all public facilities for the use of all. In today's society, they are now mostly the undertakings of the government, but there are still some welfare that the government fails to provide, but can be provided through the people's private giving. For instance, everyone should extend a helping hand to displaced, homeless disaster victims and refugees as well as those stricken by poverty, sickness, cold, and hunger by providing them with food, clothing and medicine, and by teaching them methods and techniques to make a living. We should even, as can be seen in the Zhong ahan jing, fascicle 47, Jutanmi jing, [20] and sutra 1284 of the Za ahan jing, fascicle 48, [21] teach the enslaved and the poor to give rise to the joyous mind of giving. When one eliminates spiritual poverty, one can face material poverty without being distressed.

　Giving is also called an activity which creates blessings. In the Zengyi ahan jing, fascicle 12, San bao chapter, it says that there are

p. 19

three kinds of activities which create blessings. [22] The first is giving, which is providing clothing, bedding, food, medicine, and lodging to cramanas, brahmins, the destitute, the sick and emaciated, and those who are helpless and alone. In the Mahāyāna sutras, giving is also called sowing the fields of merit.　For instance, the Youposai jie jing says making offerings to the Three Jewels is sowing the merit field of reverence, filially caring for one's parents is sowing the merit field of gratitude, and giving to those suffering poverty and hardship is sowing the merit field of compassion. [23]

　Giving may be divided into three levels: most can only give property and labor, those with an understanding of the Dharma can give the views and methods for leaving suffering and attaining happiness, and a bodhisattva can give others the spirit of fearlessness. Gifts of material goods and labor can save one from temporary emergencies and hardships, while the views and methods for leaving suffering and gaining happiness is a form of education and training which may solve the problem once and for all. Thus in the Zengyi ahan jing, fascicle 7, You wu chapter, it says:

This is to say, among all forms of giving, the gift of the Dharma is supreme; among all forms of offering, the offering of the Dharma is best; among all forms of favors, the favor of giving the Dharma is most precious. To put it colloquially, of course gifts of material and human

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resources are good, but if you can teach people ideas and methods to support themselves, that's even better.

5. End-of-life care

　Nursing the sick and providing care for the dying are now important services of a modern religion. When people these days become seriously ill, they may be hospitalized to receive professional medical care. But on their deathbed, the patients themselves and their family members often fall into a state of panic, apprehension, sorrow, and helplessness. Religious and spiritual care is urgently needed at such times. Therefore, starting in the second half of the 20th century, people in Western societies have been establishing hospice wards to care for the dying. In Taiwan, we in Buddhist circles have also popularized the custom of deathbed chanting assistance, and today, the end-of-life care and Buddhist-style funeral services promoted by Dharma Drum Mountain Buddhist Association have become very popular with the public.

　Actually, similar things were already done in the time of ?ākyamuni Buddha.　For instance, in the Zengyi ahan jing, fascicle 5, Rudao chapter, section 4, the Buddha tells his bhiksus:

This means when the bhiksus nurse a sick companion, it is equivalent to nursing the Buddha. That is, caring for the sick is the same as caring for the Buddha, as the Buddha himself also wished to personally look after the sick. Therefore, in the Mahāsa?ghika-vinaya, fascicle 28, it is recorded that the Buddha once washed clothes for a sick bhiksu. [26] And the Za ahan jing, fascicle 37, sutra 1025, records that a visiting

p. 21

bhiksu staying in the guest room was struck by a serious illness, and he had no one to care for him. So the Buddha went to visit him, and when the sick bhiksu saw the Buddha, he tried to push himself up from his bed. But the Buddha told him, "Continue lying down and resting, do not rise," and asked him, "Are you able to endure the suffering?" The sick bhiksu responded, "I am still young and have not been a monk for long. I still have not achieved wondrous and transcendent insight. I ponder, Where will I be reborn after death? And I feel remorse." Then the Buddha gave him a discourse on the conditioned arising of the six sense organs, six sense objects, and six consciousnesses. After the Buddha left, the bhiksu died. The Buddha's disciples asked him, "Where will that bhiksu be reborn?" The Buddha answered, "When he listened to my discourse, he achieved keen understanding, gained unshakable confidence in the Dharma, and entered parinirvana." Because the Buddha gave him a Dharma talk on his deathbed, a young bhiksu who had only recently left home, and who was originally worried because he had not achieved the supreme insight of the path of liberation, and didn't know where he would be reborn after death, instantly achieved the noble fruit of nirvana. [27] From this, we can see the importance of preaching the Dharma to those approaching death, and the importance for those about to die to listen to the Dharma.

　There are also cases of sick bhiksus who, because of the Buddha's visit, recovered from their illnesses. For example, in the Za ahan jing, fascicle 37, sutra 1024, the Buddha gives a discourse on "five aggregates are not self" to the Venerable Acvajit (P. Assaji), which leads the Venerable to liberation of mind, great joy, and the instant disappearance of his illness. [28] Furthermore, in other places in the Za ahan jing, fascicle 37, there are many instances of the Buddha and his noble disciples visiting the sick and preaching the Dharma to them. [29]

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　The Zengyi ahan jing, fascicle 49, Feichang chapter, gives an account of Cariputra and Ananda visiting the sick Elder Anāthpi??ada (P. Anathapindika). [30] They advised the elder to contemplate the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha of bhiksus, and they discoursed on detaching consciousness from visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile sensations; on the suffering of the five burning aggregates; and on the twelve links of conditioned arising. As the elder heard the discourse he was moved to weep, and after dying he was reborn in the Heaven of the Thirty-three.

　According to the Za ahan jing, fascicle 47, sutra 1244, the Buddha tells that if there is any man or woman who, while facing death, experiences all kinds of physical agony, they need only recollect the meritorious practices they have cultivated in life. Then their minds will hold on to good thoughts, and they will be reborn in a happy destiny. [31] But still it is best if the dying are accompanied by a spiritual friend who can remind them to maintain right mindfulness.

　From the sutras cited above, we see that Buddhism places much importance on visiting and caring for the sick, emphasizing especially that we should preach the Dharma to the critically ill. By listening to the Dharma, some can be cured, others die but can gain insight and be liberated from samsara, and others are at least able to be reborn in a happy destiny and avoid falling into the miserable ones.

　The Chinese Pure Land practice of reciting Amitābha Buddha's name is certainly a good method. It can be used not only to care for the dying and help maintain their right mindfulness, but also to help the deceased be reborn in a good realm of existence -- thus, beyond the end-of-life care application, it has an additional function. These two Dharma-preaching practices -- chanting sutras and reciting Amitābha Buddha's name -- though they differ in method, actually have the same function.

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III. Buddhist View of Practice in the 21st Century

　The Buddhist view of practice focuses primarily on the path of liberation, which means first to understand the Noble Truths of suffering, the origin of suffering, and the cessation of suffering, and then to cultivate the path leading to the cessation of suffering. These comprise the fundamental philosophy and function of Buddhism. Cultivating the way leading to the cessation of suffering is the path of liberation. If one cultivates the path of liberation solely to end suffering for oneself, this is called the self-benefiting practice. If, on the other hand, one follows the path of liberation to help others also achieve the cessation of suffering, this is called the altruistic practice. The modern Japanese scholar Dr. Ui Hakuju in his book Bukkyō Hanron (An Outline of Buddhism) takes this perspective and regards the various Hīnayāna schools as the "self-benefiting teachings" and the various Mahāyāna schools as the "altruistic teachings."

　I have always held this view: caring for the various social problems of humanity is a virtuous practice of the human and heavenly vehicles; seeking to leave behind suffering for oneself through the Four Noble Truths is the path of liberation; and helping others and oneself through the six perfections and four methods of inducement is the bodhisattva path. If we do not take liberation as the ultimate goal, and merely practice the teachings of the human and heavenly vehicles by caring for society, then such practice is no different from secular welfare work, inconsistent with the Buddhist aim to liberate sentient beings from samsara. If we just practice the Four Noble Truths and seek personal liberation, then we become self-serving people lacking in kindness and compassion, which is counter to the Buddha's original intention of transforming the world by spreading the Dharma. So we must combine the path of liberation, which leads us out of samsara to attain the bliss of nirvana, with the loving concern for society expressed in the teachings of the human and heavenly vehicles. We must then carry out the teachings in the world and share the benefits we gain with

p. 24

others: this is the truly correct approach to practice.

　Mahāyāna Buddhism criticizes Hīnayāna because they one-sidedly seek personal liberation, which does not conform to the Buddha's original intention.　If the Buddha had also been seeking primarily personal liberation, then we would not have Buddhism in this world, and we would not hear the Buddhadharma.　Hīnayāna only pay attention to the Four Noble Truths, twelve links of conditioned arising, Eightfold Noble Path, thirty-seven aids to enlightenment as preached by the Buddha, and to the order of these graduated practices and fruits of attainment on the liberation path. Yet they neglect that the Buddha practiced, attained enlightenment, and preached the Dharma because he felt concern for all people, and because he wanted to alleviate all their sufferings.　We can see from the Buddha's life that the Buddha himself was a most clear exemplar of the Mahāyāna spirit. Which is why the āgamas are full of humanistic, Mahāyāna Buddhadharma. For example, the Mahāyāna teachings of the six perfections and four methods of inducement can already be seen in both the Zengyi ahan jing and Za ahan jing.

　The altruistic practice of Mahāyāna bodhisattvas -- whether it be the six perfections or the four methods of inducement -- begins with the principal practice of giving. And although the graduated system of practices of the liberation path has the three undefiled practices of precepts, concentration, and wisdom at its heart, the Buddha nevertheless frequently encouraged people to give both possessions and Dharma teachings. Laypeople usually gave property, whereas monastics would give the Buddhadharma they had learned and practiced. This giving of the Dharma exemplifies raising the social concern of the human and heavenly vehicles to the level of the bodhisattva path through integration with the path of liberation. This is exactly why the Zengyi ahan jing, in discussing these two types of giving, emphasizes that "Among the higher forms of giving, none surpasses the giving of the Dharma."

　Giving in which the giver varies the amount given according to his

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relationship with the recipient, or in which the giver harbors some ulterior motives, is called conditioned giving, which still falls within the scope of the human and heavenly vehicles. When such discrimination and motives are not present, giving is called unconditioned, and becomes a bodhisattva practice that is in concordance with the path of liberation. So the Zengyi ahan jing, fascicle 4, Huxin chapter, sutra 5, recounts how the Elder Anathpindada practiced impartial giving, without discriminating the recipients. The Buddha praised him saying:

He also said that,

And in the Zengyi ahan jing, fascicle 45, the Buddha commends the Elder Simha for his views, saying:

From this we can see that giving of the bodhisattva vehicle and giving of the human and heavenly vehicles appear similar but are in fact entirely different.　Ordinary charity work is still a mundane practice, whereas compassionate suffering relief efforts guided by marklessness and impartiality of the liberation path is a bodhisattva practice.

Therefore, our approach to practice in the new century must return to the Buddha's original intention, that is, to meet the needs of people in society, to elevate the spiritual quality of our giving, and to extensively promote the liberation and bodhisattva paths. Bodhisattva practices without the goal of liberation are merely practices of the worldly, human and heavenly vehicles. But if we depart from the

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teachings of the human and heavenly vehicles and merely cultivate the path to liberation, then we deviate from the Buddha's purpose in manifesting in the world to save sentient beings.

　Then what exactly are the practices of the bodhisattva path? The Za ahan jing, fascicle 20, sutra 550, records the Venerable Mahākātyāyana (P. Mahākaccāna) speaking the following words to the bhiksus:

Although this passage appears in the Za ahan jing, which has always been considered a Hīnayāna sutra, it is nevertheless the very root of the bodhisattva path of the Mahāyāna. The "one vehicle path" mentioned here can be identified with the "one Buddha vehicle" in the Lotus Sūtra, [35] and this path is presented in contrast to the "paths of the three vehicles" referred to in the Zengyi ahan jing, fascicle 24, [36] as well as in other places. This one vehicle path is to help all sentient beings leave behind all afflictions, sufferings, worries and sorrows, and realize suchness, the true nature of dharmas. In other words, it is to use the one vehicle Buddhadharma to deliver all sentient beings, purify their minds, and help them realize suchness. The paths of the three vehicles refer to the noble paths of the ?rāvaka, Pratyeka-buddha, and Buddha.

　And how should one practice to attain realization? One must practice in accordance with the teachings of the Four Noble Truths, twelve links of dependent arising, and thirty-seven aids to enlightenment. The fourth of the Four Noble Truths is the Eightfold Noble Path, whose basic content is right view, right action, right concentration, and right wisdom. This means one takes the knowledge

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and insight achieved by the Buddha for guidance in practicing the three undefiled practices of precepts, concentration, and wisdom, so as to purify actions of the body, speech and mind. Keeping precepts pacifies the body, practicing concentration collects the mind, and relying on the wisdom of emptiness leads to liberation.

　In the āgamas, two kinds of liberated practitioners are mentioned: those liberated through both concentration and wisdom, and those liberated through wisdom alone. In the Platform Sutra, however, Master Huineng, the sixth patriarch of the Chan school, claims that "concentration and wisdom are one, not two. Concentration is the substance of wisdom, and wisdom is the function of concentration". [37] He further says that "to be detached from outward marks is Chan; to be free from inward disturbance is concentration". [38] If in daily life you can keep your mind free of defilements and vexations, then you are a free and liberated person. How can this be achieved? Well, ordinary people still need to make more efforts in such aspects as giving, keeping precepts and cultivating concentration, so that they can one day open their minds, eliminate karma, and thereby realize suchness.

IV. We Are Striving Toward a Buddhism of the New Century

　Buddhism in the 21st century must root itself in concern for social problems -- if Buddhists only shut themselves .